Here's a site that explains logical fallacies and cognitive biases

Difficult as it is, when we write papers and take exams and just try to think our way through problems, we often have to work around our own “cognitive biases”— those blocks and attitudes which impede our rational thinking. Here’s a site that explains many of these biases, and it’s kind of fun to read through and pick out your own, or maybe the bias of the last person you argued with!

Regretfully, I think mine is the “sunk cost bias”— What Grandma would call, “Throwing good money after bad.” If I’ve invested money or especially time and effort into something, I find it very hard to let go, and I’ll argue that it’ll get better! We’re about to turn the corner! There’s a light at the end of the tunnel! (It was this fallacy— and others, of course= that kept the US in the Vietnam war so long.)

Here’s an explanation from the School of Thought site:

Cognitive biases make our judgments irrational. We have evolved to use shortcuts in our thinking, which are often useful, but a cognitive bias means there’s a kind of misfiring going on causing us to lose objectivity. This website has been designed to help you identify some of the most common biases stuffing up your thinking.
Click on the icons above to see full explanations on link-able pages e.g. yourbias.is/confirmation-bias and share this website to help make the world a more rational and thinky place:

The Endlessly Adaptable Three-Part Essay

Make a map to your paper with a 3-part outline.

The Three-Part Essay Format : Endlessly Adaptable

If you get familiar with the format of the three-part essay, you will be able to tackle almost any academic assignment.  This format is endlessly adaptable and expandable. It will fit a short essay (two-three pages, when it's often called "the five-paragraph essay") but can also be used to structure a long paper like a research project. That's because every essay has three basic parts: The Introduction, the Evidence Section, and the Conclusion. What will vary is the length and depth of that middle section (longer for longer papers, of course). 

We'll work on each part (Introduction, Evidence Paragraphs, and Conclusion) in this lesson. But first let's look how the secrets of the magic rule of three can get into that big middle section and organize that too.

Three has always been a magic number for humans, from fairy tales like "The Three Little Pigs" to sayings like “third time’s a charm.” Three seems to be an ideal number for us--including in the academic essay.

So whenever you are given a topic to write about, a good place to begin is with a list of three secrets to the Three-Part Essay! 

Secret #1— The Thesis With Three Parts

You've probably already worked on the thesis. As you organize and draft and revise the paper, you might find that you can turbo-charge that thesis, sometimes called the "controlling idea," "overall point," or "point statement." This is the main idea of the essay that you will try to prove, illustrate, or corroborate.

In a research paper, the thesis is what you've identified as the overall point about this topic, maybe something like:  Point is this, (something else, usually about "How" or "Why"-- a "because").
I'm keeping that deliberately vague because the particulars will vary depending on what you're summarizing. But let's try this on a couple example:

Topic: How internet technology influences art
Major point:  Old applications like PowerPoint can spark artistic creativity.
How or why: Because the familiarity and and limited content makes it eternally flexible..

As you see, all we did was combine the topic, point, and how/why into a single sentence to produce the thesis:  Even the antique application PowerPoint can spark creativity because the familiarity and content limitation make it eternally flexible.  
Sometimes we can even have three "such as" items at the end of the thesis, as in this example: 

Topic: Online learning theory

Point: Distance learning can be shaped by traditional theories adapted to the new environment
Such as: Behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism.

You might have to rewrite a bit to make this a good powerful thesis sentence, but don't forget the "three" aspect.

When you list "three" at the end of the thesis, you're previewing how the paper will be structured, so make sure the sequence in the thesis matches the sequence in the evidence (body) paragraphs! (See the chart below.)

So: 

Online learning can be shaped by traditional learning theories adapted to the new environment, especially behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism.

Secret #2: The Magic of Three
It's true... everything can break into threes. Just try this: Think of your topic and the major aspects or points about this, and try to come up with three. Easy, huh? Well, let's see how that can be shaped into a paper.

Topic: What are the essential points about Passive Green?
Think in threes and you might see a shape take form as you analyze the topic:

1.         Urban heat is the product of too much concrete absorbing the sun and can be abated by passive green techniques.
2.   PG minorly modifies standard road design.
3.   PG minorly modifies standard building design.

Certainly, there are more points you could name, but try starting with threes. Here's another set of points for a research, this one about learning theories in online classrooms:

Topic: How do traditional theories apply to online learning?

1.         Behaviorism applies to rote learning like quizzes and memorization.
2.   Cognitivism applies to skills learning like analysis and critique.
3.   Constructivism applies to active learning where the student learns by doing.

As you see, regardless of the topic, we can list three points about it. And if you wonder about the repetition of words and structure when stating the three points, in this case, repetition is a good thing. Words that seem redundant when close together in an outline will be separated by the actual paragraphs of your essay. So in the essay instead of seeming redundant they will be welcome as signals to the reader of your essay’s main parts.

So how would your paper's overall view break down into three supporting subpoints:

Topic:  How is (this aspect of our culture) affected by (whatever)? (NOTE: Your question and point about the overall topic might be different because you're focusing on something else. That's great! Just make sure whatever your point is, you support it with at least "three" ideas. )

1.        
2.  
3.  

See how identifying "the three" helps you mentally organize the source material? When we say, "Find three (whatever)," that actually makes it easier for you to read and understand the reading. And you'll find that once you get those three points for the middle section of the paper, the structure of the paper will evolve. (For longer papers, you might have more sub-points, but try starting with three big sections.)

Secret #3: Using Three to Organize the Structure

You can now take the "three" and then develop them separately in the (evidence) body sections or paragraphs, each starting with a topic sentence dealing with one of the three, something like this with the "three traditional learning theories".

Topic sentence 1: Behaviorism may be adapted to facilitate online learning by focusing on ways to "reward" learners for completing tasks.

and

Topic sentence 2: Cognitivism is another traditional theory that can be adapted to online learning by identifying the skills to be learned by each assignment.

and

Topic sentence 3: Constructivism is perfectly suited for the online environment as it indicates that learners learn by doing.

Just notice how you can "break down" the points within the thesis in the supporting paragraphs to come and their topic sentences.        

 —

Introduction to the Online Learning paper

 Set up context of online learning.
Thesis: Traditional learning theories like behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism can be adapted to the new environment and shape online education.

 Evidence or Body Section- Three Parts (three paragraphs or with a longer paper, three sets of paragraphs)

 First aspect/subpoint: Behaviorism

Second aspect/subpoint: Cognitivism

Third aspect/subpoint: Constructivism

Conclusion

 Summarize the  points in different words.
Then finish with a final thought about the implications or importance of this, like "The old can be made new, as each traditional theory can give online teachers new strategies for creation of online learning materials."

 —

 Introduction to the PowerPoint as Art paper:

 Set up context of technology and art.
Thesis: Even the antique application PowerPoint can spark creativity because its familiarity and limited content allow eternal flexibility.

 Evidence or Body Section- Three Parts

 First aspect/subpoint: Familiarity

Second aspect/subpoint: Limited content

Third aspect/subpoint: Eternal flexibility

Conclusion

Summarize the  points in different words.
Then finish with a final thought about the implications or importance of this, like ".

 As this outline shows, the three-part essay consists of one introduction section (with the thesis at its end), three body sections (each beginning with one of three main points) and one last paragraph—the conclusion. 1-3-1. Once you have this outline, you have the basic template for most academic writing. Most of all, you have an organized way to approach virtually any topic and assignment. You can expand this to organize your analysis of almost any length.
 

You try it now!

Introduction

Set up context of topic
Thesis: 

Evidence or Body Section- Three Parts

 First aspect/subpoint: 

Second aspect/subpoint:
 Third aspect/subpoint: 

Conclusion

Summarize the major point in different words.
Then finish with a final thought about the implications or importance of this, or what the future holds, or a recommendation, or.....

The End Is In Sight! Coming Up with a Conclusion for Your Research Paper

Think of the conclusion as the coda to your paper.  It's not just a restatement of your thesis (the central idea), but a revelation of its significance.  Don't bring in new information in the conclusion, but you can bring in new wisdom or a new meaning.  You can show how all the points fit together and lead to that new meaning.  Here's where you prove that the whole of the analysis is worth more than just the sum of its parts. 

So here are some approaches you can take to the conclusion of the research paper. You wouldn't want to do them all, of course, but see if any of these conclusion tasks might work with your paper:

-------------

Summation plus implications:

The conclusion should never be just a restatement of the thesis, but it's okay to start the final paragraph with a restatement as long as you use other words or sentence order, so it doesn't sound repetitious. Then add a final thought that might be about the implications or the future or consequences, something new but deriving from the author's points. I tend to start with a transition word like "so" or "therefore," or "finally" to make clear it's the end, like:

So the new ebook technology will open up new avenues for authors to create their work and market it to potential readers. But in this case, the medium is just a way of getting the message across. Authors must still focus on providing the best book they can so that those many new readers will be glad they made the purchase.

or... -------------
Finally, language-immersion programs are generally better at preparing students for their foreign-exchange year. Far more than vocabulary or grammar drills, such programs give students the confidence to speak up in their new language even if they know they will be making mistakes. This analysis offers the hope that communication in the new language will build on itself, and fluency rather than accuracy will let students interact more productively and happily with their host culture.

-------------

Give a deeper meaning:

You can get additional resonance for your summary with the type of conclusion lets you go deeper into the implications of whatever you have just explained.
 After forty years,  Clapton's need to distance himself from the pain in every chord of "Layla" is understandable.  But for the rest of us, the song is new every time we listen—and the anguish of this love song plunges us back into the intensity of teenaged passion.  Never has the rawness of young love been so powerfully portrayed.  We are always 17 again when we fall in love, and just that age whenever we hear that song.

-------------

Provide a wider context for the issue:

When the points of the essay you're summarizing is important in the wider world, you might use the conclusion to show how the point fits into that larger context.

Research on "stereotype threat" has shown that students who absorb others' ideas about their group's handicaps exhibit further declines in aptitude in the contested areas (p. 12).  So single-sex education, designed as an escape from gender-based thinking— like that boys are better at math than girls—could, in the end, only reinforce gender-based thinking, if a more nuanced form of it: Girls aren't as good with abstraction as boys are. That's a result that even those who believe in innate differences shouldn't be in favor of accentuating further.

Meghan O'Rourke

 -------------
Consider leading up to an ending quote that caps the summary (but only if it's a great final thought):
Make sure the quote isn't just support for a smaller point, but some overall or global observation. It should also be felicitously phrased--  that is, not some pedestrian phrasing that anyone could have said or you could paraphrase without losing any flavor.  Lead up to it with some final thought of your own. And identify the speaker by name if possible and by role.
 
Parents and educators do young people no favors by smoothing their way, as this teaches them only that their goal should be a life without obstacles to overcome.  In fact, even the most charmed life is bound to have some challenges, and we need to prepare students for that by teaching them the value of resilience and methods of learning from mistakes.  We must think of missteps, mishaps, and mistakes as learning tools.  As Nobel Prize-winner Chris Lucas (2012), a  self-described  "failure," concludes, "I learned more from failing hard than I ever learned from succeeding easy"  (p. 13).

-------------
Try these steps to a solid summary conclusion:

• Restate thesis or major points in a new sentence order or with different wording, or make two-three sentences which summarize your analysis.

• Think about starting with a transition like "so" or "however" – read aloud and see what you think sounds like it fits.

• Maybe have a sentence that explains something about why this is important or what the context is.

• End with a final thought about the significance or overall message/theme that comes from your analysis or perhaps a recommendation of what should happen because of this. 

It's easier  to write a conclusion after you've written the paper! So here is your chance to post here and get suggestions.

Then make a substantive comment or suggestion on another student's post, to help with revision and refinement!